IMPORTANT: How QAnon Threatens the Church

No, this moment in history is not normal. We live in a time of crisis that revolves around political and geographic fragmentation, a loss of faith in institutions, an enormous wealth gap between the rich and the poor, and under the constant influence of social media and its monitoring and algorithms. We've seen this before in history. It may have not been the internet in previous occurrences. Instead it was the radio, or the pamphlet. It occurs about every 80 years or so after a period of global hyper-connectivity experiences a backlash. The world counteracts against all of the global and ethnic integration, loses faith in the traditional forces that have kept society together, and moves toward an emotional, chaotic period of dangerous ideologies. People retreat into conspiracy theories; religious cults and bizarre sects flourish as institutional religion declines. What makes this period different is the speed and the scale at which this is happening. Nothing exemplifies this recklessness more than the QAnon movement that is growing globally and now has elected representatives in the U.S. congress. In a time when much of the Christian movement in the world is choosing to focus on political power and ideology, QAnon represents the next dangerous frontier for the church where service, theology, and compassion could be replaced by fear, conspiracy, and division.

 Conspiracy theories are nothing new. They are especially prevalent during time of rapid transition and confusion. People who are attracted to conspiracy theories are often those who feel powerless against forces bigger than themselves, are inclined towards a victim mentality, or resent where they are in life. Conspiracy theories offer four big payoffs: 1) They make powerless people feel like they have valuable, insider information. 2) They quickly identify an enemy who can be blamed for all of their ills and concerns. 3) They have the potential to create communities of people that bond over being against the world together. 4) Finally, a conspiracy theory is a very convenient belief because it can never be proven wrong. After all, if you don't agree, it's just because you have been manipulated by the dark forces. Enter QAnon.

 In many ways, groups formed around conspiracy theories can serve as a pseudo-church or cult - one that puts the person in a self-centered frame of mind and is constantly seeking to identify enemies and live in perpetual fear. That's what unhealthy religion does as well and we've seen plenty of that lately. In many places, global Christians are more interested in accruing political power and winning the argument than changing their community and serving those least like them. The message of Jesus and the New Testament is replaced by the dysfunctional Israelite mentality that wanted a king with political power (that didn't go so well). If theocratic politics is akin to dysfunctional Israel reborn, QAnon is like the gnostic movement, which deviated from Jesus' teachings in favor of a detachment and disdain for the world.

QAnon followers are your neighbors, they are in churches, they might be your dad or your grandma. They believe that QAnon is a person deep inside the U.S. Government in the Department of Energy (or some other department) who is exposing lots of secretive information about how their political enemies are conspiring against them and society. It often involves conspiracy theories revolving around child molestation, but can include warnings about vaccines, can be hostile to both education and science, or can go on about Satanism or how technology is being used to control people etc.  QAnon conspiracies often go after liberal Hollywood celebrities like Tom Hanks (who is a Greek Orthodox Christian and not really that political). Then there are conspiracies about the illumnati, UFOs, Bill Gates and the idea that some politicians actually have lizard skin underneath their human skin (no joke). It's often the case that a QAnon follower is someone who is pretty naive about the internet. They access it in lesser known parts of the internet like 4chan, 8chan and Reddit and take it all at face value. It all sounds pretty goofy, but 22 Republicans in congress and 2 independents have supported QAnon beliefs. QAnon is alive and well in Europe, Asia, Latin America and elsewhere.

But who is Q? The primary sources are James and Ronald Watkins, a father and son team who gained control of the message board 8chan, which is filled with lots of questionable material including child pornography. They were based in the Philippines and started posting on October 28, 2017. Q believers don't seem to realize that the Philippines is a hub of dark web entrepreneurs who spread pornography, scams, and conspiracies from the safety of some nice home in Manila. The most wanted criminal in the world was a thirty-something, obese American who brilliantly realized how to sell illegal pharmaceutical drugs over the internet to Americans with remote doctors signing off on the prescriptions. He made billions of dollars off of the opiate addiction of Americans. The Philippines was a good base of operation because it's so easy to pay-off the authorities in that country. Cyber-libel cases are also extremely rare in the Philippines (The F.B.I. eventually arrested the cyber-drug dealer). Of course, the Q leaders have managed to monetize their conspiracy theory with books, t-shirts, and other memorabilia. Unfortunately, the F.B.I. has not always been able to stop actual acts of violence in the name of QAnon and those are expected to grow exponentially in the near future. Watkins had previously made money by starting porn sites designed to get around Japanese censorship rules. Fortunately, it looks like the Philippines finally had enough of this embarrassment and chased Watkins back to the United States.

[Side note: For those of us interested in actually fighting sex trafficking, QAnon is not helpful. Their stupid conspiracy theories interfere with the actual work of rescuing people from human slavery. It's deeply counter-productive and minimizes the issue so that false and ludicrous charges are constantly on the web and in the media; while the real criminals get ignored.]

So how did your sweet, church-going Grandma become a die-hard QAnon follower? Well, it can be addictive. Q releases regular "Q-drops" of enticing information and follows it up with melodramatic writing along the lines of "I could get killed by sharing this information. I must go now." It's like being on a giant investigative team solving the world's most dramatic and consequential mystery:  What evil forces are taking over the world? It can appeal to lonely people, people who are not good critical-thinkers, people who naively believe anything on the internet, and people who are angry. The primary in-road, however, is sharing Q's political beliefs.  It then can become a vortex that sucks people in and no amount of intercession by friends and family members can break the spell. But how, specifically, does your evangelical grandma get caught up in a movement that originated with a pornographer based in the Philippines?

In some circles of Christianity (and Islam, and Hinduism, and Buddhism), there is a fascination with end-time prophecy. Looking for symbols and hidden messages in the Book of Revelation to identify current events has been going on since...well, since before that book was even written. QAnon taps into that same desire to uncover mysteries and find clues that lead to dramatic findings about what is going on in our turbulent world of 2020. A scientific reason for the pandemic is too boring, so a conspiracy comes to the rescue. Then there's the political angle. Since much of Christianity has chosen to become very aligned with particular politicians and political parties; any conspiracy theory that adds fuel for hatred of the opposing party is welcomed with open arms. Certain segments of Christianity (certainly not all) have a real hostility toward science, education, and intellectualism. Something like QAnon provides reasons why none of those things can be trusted. Then there's the fact that we are living through a time of increased natural disasters, political division, a global pandemic, and other apocalyptic-like events that make people feel like they are the generation witnessing the biggest catastrophe in human history. It is not true, of course, but QAnon is not for students of history. Good old Q has even dropped scripture in his hate-filled messages from time to time. That really confirms the truth of Q for Grandma because the reality is that QAnon is becoming an extra-Biblical source that guides her life. A key to Q's manipulation is making it seem that no other source of information can truly be trusted. Q makes predictions that never come to pass, but that doesn't matter to QAnon followers. That just means he is throwing people off track on purpose. QAnon becomes an emotional and spiritual belief for Grandma. It's not about reason and healthy skepticism in a world where, say...anyone, myself included, can post their opinions on something and have it instantaneously beamed around the world. QAnon people will often claim that they do research, but that research is usually limited to any website or source that aligns with Q's presuppositions.

 QAnon evangelists are now all over Youtube and have their own websites and social media. It has far outgrown Q. Many of these Q evangelists come from the evangelical Christian world. They are your grandma, but with more social media savvy and who know how to monetize it. The next generation of scamming televangelists may primarily be online and linked to Q-like conspiracy movements. As QAnon grows, it will morph into whatever people want to believe, whenever they want to believe it, and the Bible will be used to justify all of it. This is the birth of a new age of heresy and cults--the kind that always flourish in times like these. There's nothing to stop a new QAnon from emerging and being part of a more outwardly fascist movement, or leftist movement, or any other ideology. Wherever people feel like powerless victims amidst all this global change and want to uncover the identity of the cabal oppressing them, there we will see a QAnon-like cult emerge.

 So what can society do about this? The country of Finland is teaching kids how to identify fake-news and navigate the internet beginning in elementary school. These are the kinds of skills and skepticism that need to be developed in every country. Conspiracy theories are raging around the world and leading to deaths in places as closed as Myanmar and as open as the U.S. In the same way that you can't yell "fire" in a crowded movie theatre because of the potentially dangerous consequences, some forms of monitoring and censorship have to become more prevalent. Do we really want videos on how to traffic women or groom children to be on Youtube and Facebook? There are limits to how much poison our societies can withstand in this cyber-world.

For Christians, the chances of more people in their churches getting caught up in this kind of thinking is very real. Complicating things is that many of these Q believers will be citing scripture or will claim that they and Q are totally in line with the Bible. This is where the subjective nature of Bible reading combined with a church that has become hyper-politicized will come back to bite in a big way. Institutional Christianity has a habit of creating the monsters that then erode it. In previous eras, the church survives because of people who choose to seek service instead of power. People who find opportunity in global crisis instead of oppression. People who express and live out hope instead of fear. And people that transform their societies for the better, rather than condemn them. To paraphrase Martin Luther King, the church needs to spend less time being the thermometer and more time trying to be the thermostat. Grandma would do far better spending her time delivering freshly-made cookies to the newly homeless in the post-Covid economy than spending four hours on the internet trying to find out which Hollywood actor is a cannibal. And she will feel better for it. This shouldn't be rocket-science for true Christians. In fact, just about everything Jesus says in the Bible will lead someone away from the mentality that it takes to be a Q believer. One mentality is completely centered on self-sacrifice (hence the symbol of the cross), and the other is completely centered on self-protection. You can't serve two masters.

Until the world knows how to navigate social media better, and the countries of the world regain their social and economic equilibrium, our societies and the church will be forced into a box. We will constantly be presented with a choice: Do I want to spend my time living in fear or do I want to spend my time making a difference in my community? The level of destruction and the duration of this era of crisis will depend on how the majority of us answer that question.  That's the real Q.

Are We Headed into a New Christian Epoch?

The Covid 19 Corona Virus crisis that has broken out around the world is not an isolated problem. It comes at a unique moment when around the world there is a counter-action to globalization, a decline in democracy, a rapid rise of nefarious social-media use, a collapse in the trust of institutions, growing environmental concerns, and a decline in institutional religion. In other words, Covid-19 is just the fuse that has lit a very big powder-keg of TNT that was building up for a long time. Could we be headed toward not just a new reality, or simply some areas where the church needs to make some minor adjustments, but rather a complete re-invention of church and society?

While every period of history has conflict, war, disease, and death; every once in a while, the Earth truly does enter into a radically new era. The Post WWII era was very different than what had preceded before. What followed saw the rise of automobile usage, massive commercial air-travel, anti-colonialism, the Cold War, the nuclear age, and new levels of prosperity and the establishment of a global Middle class. These things re-invented the world. So did the Industrial Revolution beginning in the 18th Century creating a new world of nation-states, heavy machinery, traveling faster than a horse can gallop, and relying on electricity to name just a few epoch changing shifts.

The sudden shift in mood after the Wuhan outbreak became a global pandemic had the makings of a moment where we enter into a new epoch; not just another simple moment on the world’s future path. I immediately thought of a book I read back in 2008 by Phillis Tickle entitled “The Great Emergence: How Christianity is Changing and Why.” Tickle argues in that book that Christianity is entering into a completely new paradigm; an epochal shift that occurs every 500 years. The first 500 years, of course, begins with the life of Christ and becomes the age of the Disciples and the Church Fathers who form the various church councils as Rome is Christianized (and Christianity institutionalized and legitimized). The second 500 years rely on the monastic movement to preserve a lot of Christian heritage amidst a lot of institutional carnage. It leads to the division between the Roman Catholic West and the Orthodox East known as the Great Schism of 1054. Five-hundred years after that, Martin Luther ushers in the Protestant Reformation, which puts an emphasis on the individual and Scripture which is then challenged by Enlightenment, modernist ideas. Now, (she argued back in 2008), that we were heading into a time when various different Christian traditions (Pentecostals, Conservatives, Liturgicals, and Social Justice Christians) would cross-pollinate with each other.

There’s a lot that is interesting and unconvincing about Tickle’s theory. Like the Fourth Turning Theory of Strauss and Howe, there are a lot of things historians will want to pick apart. Tickle’s cross-pollinating view doesn’t seem to have come to pass and it is also not a very macro-shift. Perhaps, she simply didn’t think big enough in her paradigm change. What might be valuable is simply the idea that there is such a thing as epochal changes (I believe there are), and that they completely re-set societies values, expectations, living conditions, and destroy complete industries and ways of life.

So what might a completely new Christian epoch look like? The shift would be so transformative it would be hard to imagine beforehand. My guess is that it will have less to do with a virus-panicked future of events that are no longer held, schools that are no longer safe, and masks and spacesuits that need to be perpetually worn. There will eventually be nanotechnology or ultra-violent technology that can kill and control viruses. But the economic displacement, distrust of institutions, shift to more cyber-life, cyborg technology, and technological surveillance could alter people’s daily life, social expectations, and theology. Initially, as people become disillusioned with materialism and technology; we will probably see an explosion of sects, cults, and an openness to spirituality. This does not mean Christian institutional growth. Ministries (like most churches) that have high overheads and live basically from month to month will struggle. Spiritual discipleship may need to occur one on one, in homes, and outside of the confines of high-expense Christian institutions. Expect, for instance, to see far fewer Christian colleges and seminaries and people getting their theological training more hands-on or online, or forgoing it all-together intentionally. The lack of an emphasis on theology (will terrify traditionalists and probably lead to a lot of heresy,) but Christianity has certainly been through that before.  It could also mean that there’s far less of a concern with theological training and more of a premium put on leaders that mobilize people to action outside of classrooms and church buildings. It could be that in the same way that we see empty Cathedrals all across Europe, we may see empty church buildings across America; or churches that have been turned into environmentally-friendly studio apartments. Communal living could return with spiritual communities being mainly tied to local, communes that share an environmentally power-grid (with everyone working at home). If it sounds far-fetched, then it’s probably a good guess of what life after an epochal change would look like. Nobody would have predicted four months ago that there would be no airplanes in the sky and every concert around the world cancelled.

We may see an initial increase in Christian nationalism as the counter-action phase of hyper-Globalization kicks in and people look locally and nationally to develop their identities (and identify enemies). That will further delegitimize Christianity in many places and amongst many ethnic groups. That nationalism will eventually be discredited and bottom-up, very non-institutional Christianity may grow. With a growing divide between rich and poor and hundreds of millions of jobs lost to automation and artificial-intelligence, it could be that Christian communities form around labor movements as they did in Brazil. Those movements were not about Marxism or Liberalism, they were about Christians vouching for basic, decent, human living conditions for a large class of Christian and non-Christian exploited workers.

It could be that so many people in the future are under surveillance and make body-alterations with new biotech technology (instead of a mechanical leg for a war vet, think of mechanical enhancements that prevent Alzheimer’s or improve memory and knowledge), that most Christian debates with non-Christians revolve around issues of bio-tech and not social issues.

These are not predictions; although I do expect some of these things to come to pass; even rapidly. Obviously, there is no way to know the future. Neither are these things I necessarily want to happen. Rather I am suggesting that we may be on a cusp of a completely different epoch. When there is an epochal change, we cannot imagine what life was like before. We may be stunned that we ever met in large, expensive buildings, or paid $120,000 for a college education, or drove cars that didn’t fly and operated on oil instead of banana juice. Epochal changes mean things are radically different and the old ways don’t make sense and aren’t even possible anymore. Many things about the church will stay the same; but Christianity has always been infinitely more flexible than we have allowed ourselves to admit. After all, our leader said “wherever two or more are gathered in my name, there will I be.” All we know is that the future will take us to some completely unforeseen places and He will be there with us.

Patrick Nachtigall is a Europe-based missionary and the author of 5 books dealing with globalization and Christianity; including In God We Trust?:  A Challenge to American Evangelicals.”

The American Church and the Great Depression of 2020

The Great Depression that began in 1929 left an indelible mark on a generation and was a traumatic national experience. It was also a difficult time for mission agencies, missionaries, and churches. It’s a long-held belief of many Christians that in difficult times, the church experiences revival and grows. This is not necessarily true. While some turn to faith, just as many do not. In American history, times of great trial tend to be bad for Christian churches and organizations. Attendance goes down, finances suffer, and there is a lack of people interested in being pastors or missionaries. This is American Christianity’s well-established pattern through the Revolutionary War, The Civil War, and The Great Depression. To make this time different, will require a real concerted effort by churches and Christian organizations, innovative solutions, and a willingness to change. Even then, the obstacles will be enormous.

How the U.S. Economy Tanked

That we are headed toward not just a recession, but another great depression should not be a surprise to anyone. Plenty of people were not surprised by the Great Depression of 1929; and many economists (such as Stephen Roach and Nouriel Roubini) were warning that Alan Greenspan’s roaring 1990’s economy was creating dangerous bubbles, reckless speculation, and dangerous financial instruments. It took until 2008 for all of that to become obvious. It should have been America’s great awakening to reality; but instead, the U.S. doubled-down by adding an extraordinary amount of debt. Some of that debt was needed since banks and consumers weren’t spending, leaving only one pillar left: the government. With an $850 million financial package, the government had to step in to prevent a total collapse of the banking system. Much more was provided by the government, but most of those trillions of dollars of aid went to corporations that hoarded cash or bought their own stock creating a new stock-bubble. This led to a great divide between Wall Street and Main street.

Inflated stocks, low interest rates, and inflated property prices made the stock market hit all-time highs, which led non-profits, churches, and other Christian organizations to believe that 2008 had just been a bump in the road. Unemployment went to all-time lows (as people got used to having multiple jobs without benefits). But the next “bull run” and “economic expansion” included low wages, a lack of benefits, and sky-rocketing health care and education costs. This confusingly inflated the stock market and depleted the average American’s bank account. By 2020, there was no room for a “black swan” event like the COVID-19 pandemic. The result is that we now have an economy that will eventually collapse harder than in 2008; but with no mechanisms to deal with the collapse. Having lowered interest rates for too long (Quantitative Easing 1,2 and 3), having failed to tax sufficiently, and having not built up a financial surplus, the United States must now add even more debt and raise it to levels mathematically impossible to pay back. It’s a problem that goes back at least three presidential administrations, if not five. This downturn will be severe. This world which has put nearly $200 trillion on an unpaid credit card will not be able to avoid this financial day of reckoning. It’s a reminder of how fragile and temporal the things of this world are.

How the American Church Responds During Financial Crisis

Going into the Great Depression of 1929, the American church felt invulnerable. Finances were good, but not great. There was still a good size missionary crew, people wanted to be pastors, denominations still felt confident, and the American church was in a period where it believed itself to be the true representatives of what it meant to be America. There was the widespread belief among evangelicals that Christians knew how to put America first and America knew how to put Christianity first. The American church, however, had already entered a period in which people were starting to distrust the church, were becoming disenchanted with religion in general, and were getting less engaged in foreign missionary work. The church noticed occasionally that things were not booming quite as much as before, but didn’t feel particularly alarmed. The church and Christian organizations didn’t realize that the waning of enthusiasm in the 1920’s would be exacerbated by the stock market collapse of 1929. All of this disappeared in the flash of a moment. The parallels to today are eerily similar.

“Interest in missions was waning before the depression, even before the Depression, missionary funds begun to decrease,” said Samuel C. Kincheloe. Financial giving had been going down for mission agencies in the 1920’s. The Foreign Mission Conference of North America saw a dramatic decline in young people wanting to become missionaries and the China mission-field got hit particularly hard. The Executive Secretary of the Home Missions Council reported that “almost all major denominations are now in a period of financial stringency in the conduct of mission work. We are in the days of failing budgets.” (1) Small rural churches were already seeing very big declines.

The confidence of American Christianity and in Christianity as the national religion fell apart quite quickly. Political power and finances had created hubris. Charles Fiske pointed out that “America has become almost hopelessly enamoured of a relilgion that is little more than a sanctified commercialism; it is hard in this day and this land to differentiate between religious aspiration and business prosperity.” (2) He continued: “America seems to be degenerating into a sort of Babsonian cult; which cannot distinguish between what is offered to God and what is accomplished for the glory of America and the furtherance of business enterprise.” (3)

Edwin Lewis wrote in 1934, “We borrowed our criteria of evaluation from the world about us—a world gone mad in its worship of mere size, a world that had set itself to create bigger ships, bigger aeroplanes, bigger locomotives, bigger buildings, bigger universities, bigger corporations, bigger banks, bigger everything-except men!”(4) When the economic bubble popped, the American church finally realized how much excess there had been; and how the hubris was unwarranted. In the best of times, evangelical churches are high-maintenance affairs with high over-head costs. Moments of financial crisis tend to make that abundantly clear.

“History doesn’t repeat itself, but it does rhyme,” Mark Twain told us. The Great Depression of 2020 will include a financial shock so grave that it will completely re-order American society and change its values. Big spending by individuals will be frowned upon, and many companies and Christian organizations will have to scale down dramatically to survive. Some will fail to do so and will go bust. Others will scale down, but not enough, and go bust as well. Many Christians like to remind us that “God owns the cattle on a thousand hills” (Psalm 50:10). But the reality is that God doesn’t always take away suffering, doesn’t take away tough times, and every single day churches filled with wonderful people and that have done great work for decades, close down. The Kingdom always lives on and is immune to these downturns, but our man-made organizations are a different creature. There’s a difference between the Church and the post-Constantinian institutional church.

Things Will Have to Change Dramatically

This will not be a short crisis and the trauma of it will change giving patterns for baby-boomers and other generations. It will take at least a decade to re-invent the global economy and it will look far different than it does today. The American church will be tempted to pull back and cut out the missionary enterprise. Pulling back is understandable. Many churches and people won’t have a choice but to live in a more frugal way. Buildings are expensive, big staffs are expensive, and running programs costs money. The foreign field will not be as much of a priority when there are so many domestic needs within the community. Denominations and Christian organizations doing work that falls outside of the international mission category will fare even worse. Whatever is not tangible, dramatic, and clearly about more than the institution will be discarded. The missionary-enterprise has one advantage. Jesus’ words in Matthew 28:19 is a command to his church: “Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit.” There is a strong sense among churches that some form of international outreach is always necessary. Hopefully, this will be the case in the post-2020 world. We must continue the global ministry of our churches; especially in a time when the world will be tempted to isolate nations from each other. But it will not be an easy sell (so to speak), and it’s not a given. Societies turn very inward at times like this.

Now this may seem like a self-serving essay from a missionary. Is this an argument to preserve the missionary first and foremost as the most valuable part of the organization and church? For denominations, international ministry is the component that the denomination offers that is most exciting, which feels the most needed, and which best captures the imagination of church. That, and disaster relief, have tended to be the “bread and butter” of Christian denominations.

But this is not an argument for self-preservation amidst a Great Depression. Actually, missionaries, more than anybody in the church, are uniquely prepared to withstand a Great Depression. We literally live month to month every day of every year. All of us check our remittances monthly wondering if there will be enough to keep us on the field. We live with the pressure of funding other ministries and we check monthly if the money is there for us to continue those ministries to which we are giving our lives. The lives of our children and the sacrifices they make by living in such unstable situations weighs on us daily. Many of us never feel safe in our homes, knowing that a change in the local currency, problems with finances, local upheaval, or a myriad of other challenges can lead to needing to move at a moment’s notice. Going without seeing family, living with financial stress, having low salaries, not having enough for retirement, and being ready to have the bottom-fall out at any second is a reality that every missionary knows a lot about. Every missionary I know knows that tomorrow is not guaranteed for them, and that the money could disappear at any second, which will lead to losing your “home” at any moment. This is a stress so internalized into the psyche of missionaries that we don’t even talk about it much— it’s normal. It’s the deal we signed up for. When, not if, we enter a new Great Depression; missionaries can scale back, but still be catalytic figures, global connectors, and models for the church. They can even model how to do ministry on-the-fly; needing to always keep things running even if the resources are not there.

Although this time will be a period of crisis, the American church should quickly adapt and view this crisis as a unique opportunity. This can be a time of shedding old wine-skins and allowing ourselves to be molded into a new shape of clay: a people that radiate humility, peace, and servanthood. While our society has a difficult time remaining calm and unified; we can demonstrate the peace that surpasses all understanding. The church as well as denominations will need to scale back financially on some unnecessary things, and make sure that amidst the chaos they are catalysts for positive works, humble evangelism, and community unity. American Christianity can re-define itself in front of the world. Flexibility, adaptability, and engaging with difficult places will be something all American Christians will need to do during this challenging time. These are the times that bring humility and greater dependence on God and on each other. It’s a test of the character of the American church. And it is a test we need to pass with flying colors.

1) Research Memorandum on Religion in the Depression (New York: Social Science Research Council, Bulletin 33, 1937), p. 51.

2) Fisk, Charles. Confessions of a Puzzled Parson, Charles Scribner’s Sons 1928 p. 14.

3) Ibid.

4) Lewis, Edward. A Christian Manifesto (New York: Abingdon Press, 1934. p. 202.

Patrick Nachtigall is a Europe-based missionary and the author of 5 books dealing with globalization and Christianity; including In God We Trust?: A Challenge to American Evangelicals.”